CONFUSING THAT (RP) & THAT (SC)

THAT can be a little confusing due to the fact that there is a THAT used for subordination (subordinating conjunction) and another, which is the relative pronoun.

THAT as a subordinating conjunction does not usually follow a noun; therefore it does not modify one. If THAT does not follow a noun, chances are it is a subordinating conjunction and not a relative pronoun.

e.g. I THOUGHT THAT YOU HAD LEFT.
- There is no noun preceding THAT, therefore it is a subordinating conjunction.

Another way is to check if THAT is a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction is to verify if the clause following THAT can be used as an independent clause (excluding THAT, of course).

e.g. I THOUGHT THAT YOU HAD LEFT.
- “You had left” can be an independent clause (excluding THAT); therefore, THAT is a subordinating conjunction.

Yet another way to check if THAT is a relative pronoun or a subordinating conjunction is to verify if the word THAT can be exchanged for the word WHICH.

e.g. I HAVE NEVER EATEN MEAT THAT WAS SO TENDER.
- I have never eaten meat WHICH* was so tender.

*NB: This is merely to check if THAT is a relative pronoun. It is not recommended for the sentence itself.

WHICH and THAT

WHICH and THAT are often confusing. Basically, WHICH is used when referring to the previous sentence (this often carries an abstract idea), while THAT usually refers to the previous noun.

e.g. HE DELETED THE PICTURE, WHICH UPSET ME.
- The fact he deleted it made me feel bad. (There is a tendency in English to use WHICH in non-restrictive adjective clauses)

e.g. HE DELETED THE PICTURE THAT UPSET ME.
- The picture upset me. (There is a tendency in English to use THAT in restrictive adjective clauses).

POSSESSIVE RELATIVE PRONOUN

Similar to quantities, possessive (genitive) qualities can be used together with a relative pronoun in the adjective clause. These are usually which (things) or whose (things and people).

e.g. WE HAVE A SPANISH STYLE HOUSE. THE EXTERIOR OF THE HOUSE IS WHITE.
- WE HAVE A SPANISH STYLE HOUSE, “THE EXTERIOR OF WHICH” IS WHITE.
- WE HAVE A SPANISH STYLE HOUSE, “WHOSE EXTERIOR” IS WHITE. This is more common in American English.

e.g. SHE HAS JUST BOUGHT A NEW CAR, THE COLOR OF WHICH I HATE.
- SHE HAS JUST BOUGHT A NEW CAR, WHOSE COLOR I HATE.

e.g. THE COMPANY HIRED A NEW SALES MANAGER, WHOSE ATITUDE IS QUITE A ANNOYING.
- When talking about people, it is not common to use “which”.

QUANTITIES IN ADJECTIVE CLAUSES

Some relative pronouns (usually, but not always, which—for objects, whom—for people) can be used together with expressions of quantity to create a non-restrictive adjective clause.

e.g. CALIFORNIA HAS A LOT OF VISITORS EVERY YEAR. MOST OF THEM GO TO DISNEYLAND.
- EVERY YEAR, CALIFORNIA HAS A LOT OF VISITORS, “MOST OF WHICH” GO TO DISNEYLAND.

e.g. I HAVE TWO COUSINS. YOU MET BOTH OF THEM.
- I HAVE TWO COUSINS, “BOTH OF WHOM” YOU MET.

Other quantifying relative pronoun combinations include:

some of (which/whom), many of (which/whom), none of, two of, half of, neither of, each of, all of, several of, a few of, a number of etc.

e.g. I TEACH SYNTAX TO OVER 300 STUDENTS, A FEW OF WHICH ACTUALLY ENJOY IT.

e.g. THERE ARE TWO WAYS AVAILABLE, NEITHER OF WHICH I LIKE.

e.g. THE PACK CONSISTS OF TEN BOOKS, EACH OF WHICH OFFER DIFFERENT INFORMATION.

PREPOSITIONS WITH RELATIVE PRONOUNS

It is common to use prepositions prior to the relative pronoun which (object of preposition). This cannot be done with any other relative pronoun.

e.g. I CLEANED A POOL IN WHICH THERE WERE TWO DUCKS AND A SHARK.
- “in which” represents “in a pool” in the adjective clause. When placing it to the front of the clause (where relative pronouns always are), the preposition is maintained.

Other common relative pronoun/preposition combinations include: through which, from which, with which, on which, out of which, on top of which, under which, into which, etc.
The preposition can be placed at the end of the adjective clause (informal use).

e.g. HE TOOK OUT HIS ROLEX, WHICH HE HAD PAID A FORTUNE FOR.
- This could be more formally structured – “He took out his Rolex, for which he had paid a fortune”.
- When the preposition is placed at the end, the relative pronoun may be removed – “He took out his Rolex, he had paid a fortune for”.

RELATIVE PRONOUNS

Relative pronouns are used to introduce an adjective clause. In English, they are who, whom, which, whose, that and Ø (zero). They always refer back to a noun, noun phrase, or a noun clause. In special cases, “where” and “when” can be used as relative pronouns.

e.g. THE PERSON WHO KNOWS MORE ABOUT THIS IS ABSENT.
- “who knows more about this” refers back to the noun phrase “the person”. “This” person is absent. Another person is present, but doesn’t know more about this matter.

e.g. THE PEOPLE WITH WHOM I WORK ARE NOT COMING.
- “with whom I work” refers back to the noun phrase “the people”. “These” people are not coming. Others are coming, but I don’t work with them.

e.g. MY CAR WASN’T RUNNING WELL, WHICH MADE ME HORRIBLY LATE.
- “which made me horribly late” refers back to the noun clause “My car wasn’t running well”. “This” made me horribly late.

e.g. DOGS WHOSE OWNERS LEAVE THEM IN KENNELS FOR HOLIDAYS GET LONELY.
- “whose owners leave them in kennels for holidays” refers back to the noun “dogs”. “These” dogs get lonely. Other dogs do not.

e.g. THE MONEY THAT I SPEND IS MINE.
- “that I spend” refers back to the noun phrase “the money”. “This” money is mine. Other money is not mine.

e.g. I COULDN’T HEAR A WORD Ø YOU SAID.
- “you said” refers back to the noun phrase “a word”. “This” word I could not hear. I could hear other words (from other people).
- This sentence could be different: I couldn’t hear a word “that” you said. The relative pronoun “that” can be absent because it is working as a direct object within the adjective clause.

e.g. SEVERAL BANKS WHERE SIMILAR SCANDALS HAD HAPPENED WERE INVESTIGATED.
- “where similar scandals had happened” refers back to the noun phrase “Several banks”. “These” banks were investigated. Others were not.
- Although “where” is usually an adverbial idea, sometimes it is used to describe (adjective idea) a noun that refers to a place, thus making it work as a normal relative pronoun.

e.g. 1963 IS THE YEAR WHEN J. F. KENNEDY WAS HOT IN DALLAS.
- “when J. F. Kennedy was hot in Dallas” refers back to the noun phrase “the year”. “This” is the year it happened. Not any other year.
- Although “when” is usually an adverbial idea, sometimes it is used to describe (adjective idea) a noun that refers to a time, thus making it work as a normal relative pronoun.

Relative pronouns can act as subjects in the adjective clause.

e.g. THE TELEPHONE THAT IS IN THE BEDROOM IS BROKEN.
- “that” refers back to the noun phrase “the telephone”
- The relative pronoun “that” is working as the subject of the adjective clause “that is in the bedroom”

When relative pronouns work as objects, they may be removed.

e.g. THE TELEPHONE (THAT) YOU BOUGHT IS BROKEN.
- “that” refers back to the noun phrase “the telephone”
- “that” represents the direct object of the transitive verb “bought”. The verb “buy” is an MTV that requires an object. Therefore, you bought “that” (the telephone).

SENTENCE FRAGMENTS

Quite a lot of errors in English are made with dependent clauses. When these are used with NO INDEPENDENT CLAUSE to support them, they become SENTENCE FRAGMENTS.

When the verb is not conjugated to concord with a subject, there is no sentence idea, but rather a FRAGMENTED IDEA, that is, a SENTENCE FRAGMENT.

e.g. SHAKESPEARE HAVING PUBLISHED HIS FIRST PLAY.
- “Shakespeare” is the subject
- “having published” is not a conjugated idea, therefore, this is a SENTENCE FRAGMENT.

A mechanism you can use to check if the verb is conjugated to concord with the verb is to simplify the two parts.
- “Shakespeare” can be changed to the pronoun “I”, and “having published” can be changed to the verb “speak”. For this to work, you must maintain the same form for the verb, that is, “speaking”.
- “Shakespeare having” = “I speaking” - It is easy to see that this is NOT A SENTENCE in English, because the verb is not conjugated to concord with the subject. Thus, you can verify if subjects that appear to have a verb really have one.

There are two ways to correct the error (sentence fragment) above:
- “Shakespeare published his first play” - alter the verb to concord with the subject;
- “Shakespeare, having published his first play, became a household name” - use the sentence fragment as a dependent clause and write a different main clause, thus making this a complex sentence.

ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENT

When used, these complements always follow adjectives. They provide necessary support for the adjective to complete its meaning, and can be NOUN CLAUSES or PREPOSITIONAL PHRASES. Not all adjectives require a complement.

e.g. RETAILERS SEEM EAGER TO PROMOTE SALES.
- “to promote sales” (required noun clause reduced by the infinitive) complementing the adjective “eager”

e.g. YOUNG CHILDREN ARE OFTEN AFRAID OF THE DARK.
- “of the dark” (required prepositional phrase) complementing the adjective “afraid”.

e.g. THE AWARD MADE HIM FEEL PROUD [OF HIS ACCOMPLISHMENT].
- “[of his accomplishment]” (not required prepositional phrase) complementing the adjective “proud”

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF PLACE

These clauses refer to the PLACE where the main clause occurred. Most adverbial clauses of place are introduced by the subordinating conjunctions WHERE or WHEREVER.

e.g. THEY WENT WHEREVER THEY COULD FIND WORK.
- “wherever they could find work” modifies the main clause in terms of place.
- “went” is an intransitive verb that usually requires an adverbial idea.

e.g. WHERE THE FIRE HAD BEEN, WE SAW NOTHING BUT THE BLACKENED RUINS.
- “Where the fire had been” modifies the main clause in terms of place.

WHERE can be misleading due to the fact it can be used as a subordinating conjunction in NOUN CLAUSES.

e.g. THE POLICE NEVER FOUND WHERE THE MONEY HAD BEEN HIDDEN.
- “where the money had been hidden” is the direct object of the transitive verb “find.” Therefore, it is not an adverbial clause of time, but rather a finite noun clause working as a direct object.

WHERE can also be used as a RELATIVE PRONOUN.

e.g. THIS IS THE DEPARTMENT WHERE WE DEAL WITH CUSTOMER COMPLAINTS.
- “where we deal with customer complaints” is qualifying the noun phrase “the department.”
- As “the department” is a vague idea, the clause in question is restricting it. With this, it is a finite restrictive adjective clause.

And, WHERE can be used as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION.

e.g. HE WALKED UP TO THE IMMIGRATION DESK, WHERE HE BEGAN EXPLAINING THE MIX-UP.
- “where he began explaining the mix-up” does NOT describe “the immigration desk”, therefore, the word where is NOT working as a relative pronoun.
- “where he began explaining the mix-up” does NOT modify where “he walked”, therefore, it is not an adverbial clause of time.
- WHERE can be substituted by the word AND, thus proving it is working as a COORDINATING CONJUNCTION. “He walked up to the immigration desk, and (he) began explaining the mix-up).”

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME

These clauses refer to the TIME that the main clause occurred. They are usually introduced by subordinating conjunctions that refer to time.

Some examples are:

AFTER she waxed her legs, she clipped her toenails.
I had never seen such a big one BEFORE I met you.
SINCE the caretaker left, we haven’t been able to tend the yard.
Ecstasy wasn’t available UNTIL the drug MDMH was discovered.
WHEN man gets to Mars, we will be old and gray.
AS SOON AS we get there, I’ll change the baby’s diaper.
I haven’t been to a roaring party SINCE my high school reunion.
WHILE her attention was momentarily adverted, I swiped some gum.
SOONER THAN you realize, you’ll be as tall as me.
*NO SOONER had the firms merged, (WHEN) I was fired.

*NB: This “complex subordinating conjunction”, when used in the initial position, requires the use of an “inversion”.

e.g. NO SOONER WILL YOU GET THE PROMOTION AND THE COMPANY WILL GO BELLY UP.

In inversions, the AUXILIARY VERB (will, in this case) is placed before the subject (you), as in question format. In the standard order, the sentence would be:

e.g. YOU WILL NO SOONER GET THE PROMOTION AND THE COMPANY WILL GO BELLY UP.

When can be misleading due to the fact that it sometimes works as a subordinating conjunction for noun clauses.

e.g. THE LADY AT THE CHECK-IN KNOWS WHEN THE PLANE IS SCHEDULED TO LAND.
- “when the plane is scheduled to land” is the direct object of the transitive verb “know”. Therefore, it is not an adverbial clause of time, but rather a finite noun clause working as a direct object.

And it (the word WHEN) can be a relative pronoun when it describes a noun that refers to time.

e.g. THE TOOK A RISK AT A TIME WHEN ALL HOPE WAS LOST.
- “when all hope was lost” is the finite restrictive adjective clause describing the noun phrase “a time”
- “at a time” is a prepositional phrase working as an adverbial phrase of time.

NON-FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES OF TIME

It is common to reduce these clauses with the GERUND and the PAST PARTICIPLE.

e.g. WHEN CHOOSING YOUR WORDS, YOU SHOULD CONSIDER HER EMOTIONAL STATE.
- “When choosing your words” is the adverbial clause of time modifying the main clause “you should consider her emotional state.”
- “When choosing your words” has been reduced by the gerund. In a finite format, it would be “When you choose your words.”
- “When choosing your words”, therefore, is a non-finite adverbial clause of time reduced by the gerund.
- “When” is a subordinating conjunction that can be used together with the reduced form. Not all subordinating conjunctions are as flexible.

e.g. HAVING UNDERSTOOD THE METHOD, HE WENT ON TO FINE TUNE ALL THE DETAILS.
- “Having understood the method” has been reduced by the gerund. In a finite format it would be “When he had understood the method.”
- “Having understood the method”, therefore, is a non-finite adverbial clause of time reduced by the gerund.
- As you can see, it is possible to reduce perfect tenses using the gerund.

e.g. PLACED UNDER A MORE FLUORESCENT LIGHT, THE COLOR BECOMES MORE VIBRANT.
- “Placed under a more fluorescent light” has been reduced by the past participle. In a finite format, it would be “When the color is placed under a more fluorescent light.”
- “Placed under a more fluorescent light”, therefore, is a non-finite adverbial clause of time reduced by the past participle.

UNTIL x BY

These two ADVERBS OF TIME can be very confusing. UNTIL gives the idea of CONTINUITY. BY gives the idea that something will happen anytime “before, but no later than, the time reference”.

e.g. THE LAW REMAINS IN FORCE FOR ALL ELECTIONS UNTIL 15TH FEBRUARY THE FOLLOWING YEAR.
- “until 15th February the following year” shows that the law will CONTINUE in force TO THAT POINT IN TIME.

e.g. SHARKS WILL BE EXTINCT IN THE WILD BY THE YEAR 2007.
- “by the year 2007” gives an idea that “sometime before 2007 sharks will be extinct.” It is NOT CLEAR WHEN, but it is expected to happen “sometime” before the time reference.

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES - Finite & Non-finite

Adverbial clauses are a group of words with a verb that remit adverbial ideas (time, place, contrast, condition, manner, comparison, reason or cause, purpose, result or circumstance). Finite adverbial clauses usually contain a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION (see entry on SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION), which makes it easier to identify. Non-finite adverbial clauses, however, hardly ever (almost never, almost) have a subordinating conjunction, making them more difficult to identify and more open to interpretation.

FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Most finite adverbial clauses have a SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION, which will aid in determining the adverbial idea.

e.g. DESPITE THE FACT (THAT) SHE SMELLS LIKE ROTTEN FISH, I LIKE HER.
- “Despite the fact (that)” is a subordinating conjunction used to show CONTRAST
- “Despite the fact (that) she smells like rotten fish” is a finite adverbial clause of contrast.
- “I like her” is the main clause.

NON-FINITE ADVERBIAL CLAUSES

Reducing adverbial clauses is common, but confusing. They can be reduced in three ways: GERUND, PAST PARTICIPLE, and INFINITIVE. When this occurs, quite often the SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTION is removed, thus leaving the sentence open to interpretation.

e.g. SORTING THROUGH ALL HER BELONGINGS, SHE FOUND THE OLD PHOTO OF HER FIRST BEAU.
- “Sorting through all her belongings” is a dependent clause that can be interpreted THREE ways:
1) “By sorting through all her belongings” (referring to the MANNER in which she found the photo) – non-finite adverbial clause of manner reduced by gerund; or
2) “Because she sorted through all her belongings” (referring to what CAUSED her to find the photo) – non-finite adverbial clause of cause (reason) reduced by gerund.
3) "As she sorted through all her belongings" (referring to the time she found the photo) - non-finite adverbial clause of time reduced by gerund.

e.g. HE TOOK UP ANTHROPOLOGY, STIMULATED BY OUR ENTHUSIASM.
- “stimulated by our enthusiasm” can be interpreted as “because he was stimulated by our enthusiasm” – non-finite adverbial clause of cause reduced by the past participle.

e.g. HE OPENED THE CRATE TO LOOK FOR THE DEED.
- “to look for the deed” can be interpreted as “so that he could look for the deed” – non-finite adverbial clause of purpose reduced by the infinitive.